Once upon a time, when the earth was still empty and uninhabited, the Ruler of the Heavenly Kingdom, Patotoqé, woke up from his long sleep. The first ones he looked for were the Rukelleng Mbopa brothers, who were the guardians of his beloved chicken. Because the Rukelleeng Mbopa brothers were not visible, Patotoqé was furious and ordered his guards to look for them.
The Rukkelleng Mpoba brothers came in a hurry and in fear they immediately prostrated themselves before Patotoqé. They said, “Please forgive me, my lord. We have just been traveling around the earth to show off lightning and thunder. We saw that there was not a single human being on it, there is no meaning to your power and divinity without humans to worship you”.
For a moment Patotoqé was pensive and said to himself: “What Rukkelleng Mpoba said is true”. So Patotoqé ordered a grand deliberation to be held in the Heavenly Palace, to decide whose son would be sent down to earth to inhabit the empty world. He wants human children to be born on earth who will later worship and glorify him.
The deliberation decided to send Patotoqé's son named La Togeq Langiq, who after the world was named Batara Guru. Patotoqé also sent down the entire legacy of Batara Guru in the sky including the palace, concubines, troops, bodyguards, ladies-in-waiting, bissu priests, sanro (shamans), and servants who would later entertain, accompany and serve Batara Guru so that he would feel at home and survive on earth.
Batara Guru was betrothed to Princess Dewi Sinauq Tojang from Buriq Liu/Pérétiwi (Underwater Kingdom), named Wé Nyiliq Timoq. The meeting, love, and marriage of Batara Guru with the princess from the underwater palace, are full of unique, mystical, magical, and romantic stories that anciently depict human relationships in a natural and universal way. The marriage of the god from Boting Langiq and the goddess from Buriq Liu then inhabited the middle world (Alé Kawaq/Alé Lino) and are believed to be the first humans to populate the earth. The first humans were born in the North Luwu area in Bone Bay. They then reproduced, had children, and enlivened the world that is now better known as the Bugis land and the Bugis people.
The first daughter of these gods and goddesses was named Wé Oddang Riuq, who died when she was seven days old, and from her grave appeared yellow rice, which is what is known as Sangiang Serri (similar to Dewi Sri in Java), who would later give life to humans. The second child of the couple Batara Guru and We Nyiliq Timoq was La Tiuleng or better known as Batara Lattu'.
La Tiuleng or Batara Lattu’ had twins, namely Sawérigading and Wé Tenriabéng. The two were deliberately raised separately. As twins, they only met again when they were adults. Sawérigading was fascinated and fell in love with his twin sister. Sawérigading also intended to marry Wé Tenriabéng.
The family secret that had been kept for so long was revealed. Sawérigading was told that Wé Tenriabéng was actually his twin sister. Consanguineous marriages were believed to bring disaster.
Sawerigading was heartbroken. Sawérigading decided to go explore the world. Until one day in China, Sawérigading met a beautiful princess who looked like her twin sister named Wé Cudaiq, the daughter of a king in mainland China. After going through a series of stories and events, a boy was born as the fruit of their love and marriage. This boy was then given the name ‘La Galigo’.
The short story above is not a story that originates from the Bible. The story of the creation of the world written in the La Galigo manuscript is different from the story of creation as told in the Book of Genesis. The story of creation according to La Galigo was written according to the perspective of the ancestors of the ancient Bugis people in describing the relationship between humans and nature and the creator of the universe.
La Galigo is said to be one of the longest literary works in the world. Longer than the Indian heroic stories, Mahabarata, and Ramayana. Also longer than the Greek epic, Homer. The La Galigo manuscript stored in the Leiden University library with the archive name "NBG 188" stored in the Leiden University Library is 2850 pages long with a size of 21 cm x 34 cm divided into 12 volumes of books handwritten in Bugis script, and consists of 225,000 lines. According to the belief of Benjamin Frederik Matthes and other experts, the manuscript of thousands of pages is only a third of the entire La Galigo story that lives and is spread in Bugis society. Unfortunately, La Galigo's popularity in the country is still less than the Indian epic. Not many of us know it. In fact, since 2011, La Galigo has been designated by UNESCO (World Educational and Cultural Organization) as a world heritage literature.
In fact, for some Bugis people who adhere to the local religion, the Tolotang belief, La Galigo is actually their holy book. In the form of an epic poem, this work was originally an oral narrative. However, entering the first half of the 19th century, this work began to be written. In the form of traditional Bugis poetry or Lontara. The composition of the language of the composer of this poem is considered beautiful. High literary quality. Interestingly, the tradition of reading La Galigo is done while singing. The way to sing La Galigo in Bugis is called laoang or selleang. Usually done in a traditional ceremony. So, actually speaking of La Galigo, in addition to inheriting a written tradition, it is also an oral tradition.
According to several experts, La Galigo, the story of La Galigo was originally written around the beginning of the 14th century, some experts even believe that the beginning of the story had appeared among the Bugis people even earlier. Interestingly, even though La Galigo is not a historical text because the mythological aspect of the narrative is very strong, this text is recognized by many scientists as having a major influence on how historians view the past of Bugis civilization. In particular, the Bugis community in the period before the arrival of Islam.
What is the relationship between La Galigo and Bible translation? Who is Benjamin Frederik Matthes? What did Matthes do during his fifty years of work and service as a messenger of the Dutch Bible Society (Nederlands Bijbelgenootscap-NBG)?
In a meeting in Amsterdam in 1847, the Board of Directors of the Dutch Bible Society (NBG) decided to start translating the Bible into Bugis and Makassar. John Leyden, a missionary working in South Sulawesi, said that the Qur'an had been translated into Bugis. If the Evangelical Mission Agency wanted to introduce Christianity in South Sulawesi, then the translation of the Bible into the local language had to be started. A translator had to be sent to South Sulawesi and according to the NBG, the person had to have theological skills as well as linguistic expertise. The NBG chose Dr. Benjamin Frederik Matthes.
Benjamin Frederik Matthes was born in Amsterdam on January 18, 1818. After completing high school, he continued his theological studies at Leiden University. In Leiden, in addition to studying theology, Matthes also studied Semitic languages and literature. After that, he deepened his knowledge of Semitic languages at the University of Heidelberg, Germany. Between 1844-1848, Matthes served as a teacher and Deputy Director of the Mission Education Center (Zendelingshuis) of the Dutch Evangelical Agency (Nederlands Zending Genootscap-NZG) in Rotterdam. When the Dutch Bible Society (NBG) was looking for someone who could research the Bugis and Makassar languages, Matthes was considered the most appropriate person. So, on October 13, 1847, Matthes was officially appointed as the NBG envoy to the South Sulawesi region. Initially, Matthes had some reservations about his appointment, because he did not agree with the NBG policy of not providing pensions in old age or widows' pensions to its employees. Although he did not agree, he resigned himself to the policies in force in the NBG environment. However, later he heard news that the NZG had established a pension provision for its employees and he was happy because he said that it showed "the Christian principles and spirit of an institution". In June 1848, Matthes married C.E. Engelenburg in Kampen, and on July 7 he and his wife set sail for Indonesia. Mrs. Matthes was the only female passenger on the ship. Although she initially suffered from seasickness for several days, Matthes enjoyed the long transcontinental voyage. After passing the Canary Islands, they sighted land again, namely the Natal Islands, south of Java. On October 27, 1848, Matthes and his wife landed in Batavia.
1848-1860
Arriving in Batavia, Matthes immediately looked for archives on the Bugis and Makassar left by Rev. W.C. Toewater, who served as pastor of the Makassar congregation from 1840-1843 and died in 1844. It turned out that these materials were almost unusable, because they were only short notes. A month later the Matthes couple left for Makassar and arrived there on December 20, 1848. For a linguist who was usually educated in the western education method at that time, Matthes prioritized written manuscripts in the target language as the basis for the translation method compared to interviews and direct discussions with speakers of the language. He considered written manuscripts to have purer and more complete language rules and vocabulary than spoken language.
Upon arriving in Makassar, Matthes immediately began work, initially with the help of Indo-Europeans who could speak Makassar. Soon after, he began working with someone named Intje Papu (from her name, it seems she was not a native Makassarese). Nearly everyone in the area where she lived was fluent in Makassarese. In 1850, Matthes traveled to the South Coast with the intention of learning the Makassarese language in the interior. When he arrived in Bonthain and Bulukumba, he was surprised to see the condition of the Protestant Church congregations there, which mostly consisted of Indo-Europeans. The congregations were completely neglected. He immediately wrote to the NZG and proposed placing a missionary in South Sulawesi.
While waiting for the arrival of the missionary, Matthes helped serve catechism, preach, and provide pastoral care. For him, the burden of the task was quite heavy, outside of his main task of researching languages and translating the Bible. As a missionary, he did this in a spirit of devotion to caring for God's congregation.
In 1852, finally a missionary was sent by the NZG to serve in Bonthain and Bulukumba, namely W.M. Donselaar. Two years later, a second missionary, A. Goudswaard, arrived.
Meanwhile, Matthes gradually began to gain the trust of the local population, so that he managed to trace many things. On his way to Parangtambung, he found the Qur'an accompanied by an interlinear translation in Makassar. However, as someone who understood Arabic, Matthes considered the translation too free, even resembling a paraphrase. The translation was too wordy, so that it was three times longer. He said, "If you later translate the Bible, it would be better not to imitate the way the Qur'an was translated."
After some research, Matthes considered the Makassar language easier to learn, but not as important as the Bugis language, because the number of Bugis speakers was greater and the distribution area was wider. While diligently researching the Makassar language, Matthes began to collect manuscripts in ancient Bugis, including the La Galigo manuscript.
In 1852, Matthes traveled north. During the two-month journey, he visited areas where the majority of the population were Bugis for the first time. Matthes began to understand the Bugis language, because he found several people who were willing to provide information to him, including the Regent of Aru Mandalle and his father, Daeng Mamanggung in Kekeang, and Aru Pancana, a daughter of King Tanette, whom Matthes described as follows:
“She was about 40 years old, her husband had died. She was a woman who could be called a student. She archived and arranged all of her father's important letters. Aru Pancana not only understood the language of the Bone Palace, but she also mastered the ancient language, namely La Galigo, which was no longer used.”
Matthes greatly appreciated such educated women, although Matthes often expressed negative opinions about the level of education and culture of the Bugis and Makassar people in his letters.
In the midst of his struggle to learn the Bugis and Makassar languages, Matthes experienced many family problems. His first child died shortly before birth in June 1850, when Matthes often left Makassar to serve church congregations in Bonthain and Bulukumba. After that, his wife's health was never really fit. In 1852, he reported to the NBG that his wife was suffering from respiratory problems. So they considered visiting his wife's older brother in Klaten, Central Java. In 1854, his young daughter also fell seriously ill. Matthes complained that his life revolved around the study and the sickroom. At the end of 1854, Matthes and his family moved to Maros, because the climate there was considered better. But it turned out to be of little use. On March 9, 1855, Mrs. Matthes died of increasingly severe tuberculosis."
The death of his wife hit Matthes very hard. To his friend Hiebink, Matthes told of the beautiful memories of his married life with his wife. He was forced to entrust his two young children (a 3-year-old girl and a one-year-old boy) to the family of one of his friends, who worked as civil servants for the Dutch East Indies government. His job required him to travel frequently to the interior, making it impossible for Matthes to educate and take care of his children. Because civil servants were often transferred, Matthes had to look for other families to entrust his children to twice.
In the midst of various difficulties, Matthes returned to hard work. He had begun to be able to read parts of the La Galigo poem written in ancient Bugis script. In 1856, he traveled north again. On his journey he was assisted by kings and collected a number of handwritten manuscripts, including kotika (writings on how to distinguish good and bad times) and customary laws. Matthes also worked with bissu (shamans who acted like women). After returning to Makassar from a long journey to the north, Matthes began to consider bringing and entrusting his children to the Netherlands. So, he applied for leave from the NBG. While waiting for the NBG's decision, in 1857 Matthes made a fairly long journey across South Sulawesi from the west coast to the east coast. The main destination of his journey was Watampone, the center of the Bone Kingdom. But on the border of the Bone region he experienced great disappointment. The King and the Bone dignitaries did not give him permission to enter the Bone region and demanded that he return home the next day. His misfortunes increased when that night, his horse was stolen so he was forced to return home on foot for five days across the mountains. This difficult and dangerous journey did not bring significant results in his efforts to learn the Bugis language. But what he did not expect was that because Matthes returned to Makassar on foot, the Dutch East Indies government was angry. They demanded compensation from the Bone Kingdom. When the Bone Kingdom ignored them, a "punitive expedition" was held and finally the Bone Kingdom was conquered by the government. For the next few years Matthes often had to defend himself against accusations that he was the cause of the attacking expedition. Although he regretted the incident, as a Dutchman he implicitly “justified” the government’s actions.
In early 1858, Matthes’ book Boegineesch heldendicht op Daeng-Kaleboe (Bugis Heroic Poem about Daeng Kaleboe) was published in Makassar, consisting of an introduction, original manuscript and translation. This was Matthes’ first work in Bugis. Not long after, the NBG Management granted his leave request. Matthes and his children left for the Netherlands. They arrived there in mid-1858.
When he arrived in the Netherlands, it turned out that the manuscript of the Makassar Grammar book that he sent to the NBG had not been published. It was only at the stage of typesetting. Since 1855 he had been urging the NBG management for some of the materials that he had sent. He was disappointed and angry, but in fact the actions of the NBG management were quite reasonable. It was impossible to print a manuscript that came from materials in an unknown language if the compiler had not had time to see and correct the draft. Matthes immediately tried to get his two works published. The Makassar-Dutch Dictionary was published in 1859, followed by Bunga Rampai 1860. Both works showed Matthes' perseverance and expertise in the field of the Makassar language.
Based on the initial translation of Matthes' work, the missionary Donselaar compiled a pamphlet in Makassar containing the Ten Commandments, the Most Important Law, the Lord's Prayer and Psalm 1. When the pamphlet was finished being printed and was about to be distributed to the community, the Governor of Sulawesi confiscated the pamphlet. The NZG management submitted a letter of objection to the Dutch East Indies government, but the government was unwilling to cancel the confiscation. It seems that the government was irritated by the statement of the Evangelical Mission Agency (NZG) which was militant in tone but did not understand the local situation and conditions, such as the following:
"In the southern part of Sulawesi, two of our people (missionaries) are ready to start an attack on the Makassarese and Bugis people with the word of the Gospel (Bible excerpts in Donselaar's pamphlet), in their local language."
The NZG statement was considered insensitive to the vulnerable and sensitive conditions of the government in the colonial region. Donselaar was still allowed to serve the Indo-Makassarese congregation and learn the Makassarese language, but was prohibited from distributing reading materials to the Makassarese people. However, the Dutch East Indies government did not hinder the NBG and Matthes' efforts to translate the Bible into Makassarese and Bugis. However, for the time being, translation and evangelism efforts could not go hand in hand.
In 1859, Matthes intended to return to Makassar. However, he fell down the stairs and suffered quite serious injuries, which caused him to stay longer in the Netherlands. He did not leave until the fall of 1860 and left his children with his wife's family in Kampen. This time for the first time he used a steamship, a new technology at that time. He arrived in Makassar in early 1861 and began his second term.
1861-1869
During Matthes' second ministry, the NBG Board of Directors saw that after some time the opportunity for evangelism in the land of Makassar began to open up. However, considering Matthes' age, which was approaching 43 years, they were worried that Matthes would not be able to complete the task of translating the Bible that was assigned to him. NBG hoped that Matthes would still be able to complete one Gospel book in both regional languages (Bugis and Makassar) as a basis for the next Bible translation.
Meanwhile, Matthes met Aru Pancana, someone who could provide information about the Bugis language, whose name has been mentioned above. Regarding the meeting with Aru Pancana, Matthes said, "This Empress is the mother of ... the queen who now rules in Tanette, one of the kingdoms that is subject to the government. Her character is dominant and constantly quarrels with her daughter, the government made her live in Makassar. It cannot be denied that she has very broad knowledge in the Bugis language and literature."
Aru Pancana became a place for Matthes to ask questions about language and literature. Matthes also gave him compensation for copying the manuscripts of La Galigo and various other regional language manuscripts. Although according to Matthes it was rather embarrassing for a queen to work for wages. Getting a colleague who understood the local language and culture, Matthes made rapid progress in learning the Bugis language and literature. In 1863 the Gospel in Makassar was finally published, followed the following year by the Gospel in Bugis. Three years later in 1866, the Book of Genesis was published in Bugis. Each was printed in 3,000 copies. Indo-Europeans born to European fathers and native mothers understood this translation better than reading the Bible in Malay and Dutch translations. But their numbers were small, and most were poor. While the Muslim population, of course, was not willing to spend money to buy a Bible. Van der Tuuk, a missionary and Bible translator who was a colleague of Matthes who worked in Tanah Batak did not agree with NBG printing the Bible in thousands and commented, "Matthes, like other translators, certainly did not immediately produce a good translation. So if this initial edition was printed in small quantities, Matthes would have had a quicker chance to improve his work." Van der Tuuk's words were proven. Only a few copies of the Bible were distributed, and even then they were given for free. After that, NBG managed to publish the first volume of Bunga Rampai, a collection of Matthes' works on the Bugis language and culture. After that, NBG economized a little and only really wanted to print books that they considered important and supported the mission of evangelism. The relationship between Matthes and NBG was tense due to misunderstandings. Matthes commented on NBG's policies on various issues, while the management felt they had to make various savings and stop several plans to print translated books. Worse still, due to the negligence of the NBG Secretary who for more than 15 months did not provide an answer to the letters sent by Matthes from Makassar. Matthes then filed an official protest to the NBG Board of Directors through his brother in the Netherlands. Matthes felt that the NBG was starting to “care less” about itself and its work. Matthes’ protest made the management a little hurt. However, this incident did not have too serious consequences because the NBG then appointed a new secretary, Rev. J. van Leuwen. Matthes had known him since studying in Amsterdam. The correspondence between the NBG and Matthes became more intimate.
Meanwhile, Matthes continued to struggle to complete the Bugis dictionary and grammar. He laid the foundation for the Bugis dictionary by asking someone to translate the Makassar-Dutch dictionary manuscript into Bugis and then completing the translated manuscript with data that had been collected through research, interviews and reading original manuscripts in Bugis. The books could not be printed in Makassar, which made Matthes ask for permission to return to the Netherlands at the same time as an effort to print the Bugis dictionary and grammar book. Finally, Matthes returned to the Netherlands in 1870.
1870-1880
After some time in The Hague, Matthes then settled in Kampen. Matthes continued to struggle so that his various works could be printed immediately, especially his works in the field of linguistics, but also his writings in the field of ethnography, and the translation of the Bible that he had completed, but had not yet been printed (the Book of Genesis in Makassarese, and the Gospels of Mark, Luke, John and the Acts of the Apostles in Makassarese and Bugis). With Van Leeuwen's help, Matthes' works could finally be printed and published.
Around 1873, the NBG management had a new service plan for Matthes. In the NBG management meeting, it was announced that a school for training interpreters and native teachers would be established in Makassar. Matthes, with his long experience, was proposed to be the leader of the school for 3-4 years. Afterward, Matthes would return to serve as an NBG envoy.
So in 1875, Matthes returned to the Dutch East Indies for the umpteenth time, this time not as an NBG envoy, but to lead a school. His fellow translator, Van der Tuuk, likened Matthes to coming to “eat from the government’s plate.” Starting in early 1876, Matthes began his new assignment in Makassar. He was not as lonely as before, because his 24-year-old daughter helped him take care of all his daily needs.
He handed over most of his teaching duties at the school to other teachers in related fields. Matthes only taught Bugis and Makassar to prospective interpreters. In addition, Matthes led the school and did administrative work. Because of Matthes’ presence, the school was quite well-known and had a good name among the community. He also adapted three geography textbooks into Bugis and Makassar. Matthes actually did not really like being a school director, but he did it with full dedication, friendliness and humility, good qualities that the people of Makassar always remembered from him for years to come.
Meanwhile, Matthes no longer continued his efforts to translate the Bible, because the parts of the Bible that had been translated and printed did not sell on the market. On the contrary, because of the existence of the school, Matthes' other works in the field of linguistics, such as dictionaries and language books, fared better and were reprinted.
In 1879, Matthes asked to be dismissed from his duties as director of the school. He held a big farewell party. From the beginning, he had only served as the head of the educational school and interpreter for three years. But he did not immediately return to the Netherlands, because previously he had requested that his son, after becoming a second lieutenant in the Dutch East Indies army, be placed in Makassar. The government granted the request, so that Matthes and his two children were temporarily reunited since 1880. Shortly thereafter, Matthes and his daughter returned to the Netherlands, they arrived in September 1880 and settled in The Hague. His daughter did not live long, she died in 1886. Until her death, she faithfully took care of her father's household.
Returning to Translating the Bible
Matthes' return to the Netherlands put the NBG in a difficult position, because of the initial promise that after Matthes no longer served in Makassar, he would return to being an NBG envoy. This meant that the NBG had to routinely provide Matthes with a "waiting fee" of 3,000 guilders per year, unless Matthes found another job. The NBG Board of Directors' proposal to find him a place as a professor in the Netherlands also did not produce results.
So in 1881 the NBG decided to pay Matthes 3,000 guilders per year as long as the NBG gave Matthes the task of translating the Bible. The results of his work would later be stored in the form of a handwritten manuscript. New printing would be carried out when there was a suitable and profitable time for efforts to spread the gospel in the South Sulawesi region. This was an emergency decision, because the NBG never wanted to give Matthes a pension, while also not wanting to dismiss him. Matthes then continued his efforts to write various anthologies about the Makassarese and Bugis languages and also updated the printing of the Makassarese-Dutch dictionary.
In 1884, Matthes sent a letter to the Secretary of the NBG, Van Leeuwen, after several scientific papers whether there was any more work expected of him. He expressed some reservations about having to immediately continue the work of translating the Bible. The reason was, he considered the level of education of the Makassarese and Bugis people was still too low to accept the Bible in printed (written) form. He further emphasized that even if the missionaries were free to come to Sulawesi, they would not be able to use the printing of various parts of the Bible until the local people had a culture of reading and writing.
However, two months after he sent the letter, Matthes' views suddenly changed. He submitted another request to complete the translation of the entire New Testament. The NBG management accepted his request and Matthes immediately got to work. In early 1887, the work was completed. The management reported in a general meeting that the New Testament in Bugis and Makassar was being printed. In fact, it can be said that the “right time” had not yet arrived for the evangelism in Makassar and Bugis. It seems that the NBG administrators had forgotten the decision they made in 1881, namely that Matthes’ translation would not be printed, and would only be kept as a handwritten manuscript.
After the New Testament was completed, Matthes translated the Bible stories into Makassar and Bugis. In 1887 he accepted the assignment and a year later his work was completed. In 1890 two volumes of Bible stories from the Old Testament and the New Testament were printed. In 1889 a supplement to the Bugis-Dutch dictionary was also published, which was Matthes’ last work in the field of linguistics.
When Matthes finished translating the Bible stories, he, who was approaching 71 years old, asked Van Leeuwen, “At my age it seems impossible to translate the entire Old Testament, even in one language. But what do you think if I try to translate the Book of Proverbs and Psalms?”
The letter was well received by Van Leeuwen and then Matthes’ proposal was approved. Matthes hoped that if the translation of the two books was completed, it would be printed immediately, while he was still alive. Matthes' proposal was again accepted. After the completion of Proverbs and Psalms in Makassar and Bugis, it was immediately printed. After that, Matthes worked on 1 and 2 Samuel. When in 1892 he proposed the translation of 1 and 2 Samuel to be printed, a member of the NBG management protested. He asked, "Aren't we willing to print these books just to please Mr. Matthes, and not primarily for the gospel? Isn't the printing cost expensive?" But the management decided to print them anyway. That happened over and over again. Every time Matthes finished translating a book of the Old Testament, the book was immediately printed. Finally in 1900, the entire Old Testament, and thus the entire Bible, was translated and printed in Makassar and Bugis.
After the entire Bible was completed, Matthes still hoped that the NBG would give him another big task. At that time he was almost 83 years old. His enthusiasm was still burning, even though his health was not so good. However, in the last seven years of his life, NBG never asked him to do anything again. But Matthes was still given an allowance of 3,000 rupiah per year.
It seems that NBG really appreciated the hard work and perseverance of Matthes who devoted more than 50 years of his life to researching and scientifically developing the Makassarese and Bugis languages and literature, which became the basis for him in translating the Bible.
Unlike translation work in several other places in the archipelago, Mattes not only translated the entire Bible into two languages, but also wrote it himself and then even carefully supervised the printing of the entire translation in Makassar-Bugis script. That the work of writing and correcting the manuscript was done by himself is considered extraordinary, let alone Matthes undertook the translation effort alone for dozens of years.
From the beginning, Matthes based his translation work not on everyday spoken language, but on written language and literature. In language studies, written manuscripts were his main reference for learning, while meetings with language speakers were secondary to him. The type of language and style he used in translating the Bible was the style of language he encountered in Makassar and Bugis written literature. Perhaps a little different from today's translators who mostly work in teams and prioritize the acceptance and understanding of the people (speakers) of the translation results.
