The question of the relationship between biblical Israel and the modern state of Israel is a complex issue, requiring a thorough historical, theological, and archaeological study. The history and identity of the Israelite nation cannot be understood solely linearly from the biblical text, but also needs to be studied from the archaeological evidence and the developing social history.

The Origins of Israel: Between Biblical Narrative and Archaeological Data

The biblical narrative states that the Israelite nation originated from Abraham, an important figure called by God out of Ur of the Chaldees (modern Iraq) to the land of Canaan. From Abraham's descendants were born Isaac, Jacob, and the twelve tribes of Israel. The name "Israel" itself comes from the story of Jacob wrestling with God (Genesis 32). The meaning of the name יִשְׂרָאֵל (Yisra’el) can be interpreted as “he who wrestles with God”, derived from the roots שָׂרָה (sarah, ‘to wrestle’) and אֵל (El, ‘God’).

However, archaeological evidence has given rise to various theories regarding the origins of the Israelites. Some archaeologists argue that the Israelites came from outside Canaan (as depicted in the Exodus from Egypt), while others suggest that they were local Canaanite tribes who later formed a new identity through a unified faith in Yahweh. In other words, the exodus story may have been a theological narrative written later to explain the collective identity that was being constructed.

Covenant and National Identity

In the biblical narrative, the nation of Israel is formed not only through descent, but primarily through a covenant with God. The covenant with Abraham was unilateral, containing a promise that his descendants would become גּוֹי (Goi)—a great political and administrative nation. The covenant at Mount Sinai in the time of Moses was bilateral, Israel becoming God’s people if they obeyed His laws.

However, throughout its history, the nation of Israel repeatedly failed to keep these covenants. This unfaithfulness resulted in them losing the promised land, being exiled to foreign lands (Assyria and Babylon), and losing their political and religious identity. The destruction of the Temple and the exile to Babylon were turning points that aroused theological awareness of the need for a new form of relationship with God.

New Promise and Messianic Hope

The experience of exile gave rise to a longing for renewal. The prophet Jeremiah voiced the promise of a New Covenant (Jeremiah 31:31–34), this time based not on external law, but on the internalization of God’s law in the hearts of the people. The New Covenant is eternal because it is based on forgiveness, not just on obedience to the law.

After the return from exile, the people of Judah (a remnant of Israel) rebuilt the Temple, but remained under foreign rule, including the Persians, the Greeks, and later the Romans. Although they gained some independence during the Maccabean Dynasty (2nd century BCE), this independence did not last long. Internal conflict and Roman intervention brought them back under colonial rule.

Narrative of the Political History of Israel–Palestine from the Byzantine Period to the Modern State of Israel

Over time, from 324 to 638 AD, the Byzantine Empire controlled Jerusalem until the holy city finally fell into the hands of Islam in 638 AD, just six years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Under the leadership of Caliph Umar ibn Khattab, Muslims succeeded in capturing Jerusalem from Byzantium. After this conquest, Islam asserted its presence by building the Dome of the Rock, the Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Temple Mount area, and the magnificent Umayyad Palace complex around it. Since then, Jerusalem has been a holy city for Muslims, and Jews were allowed to live in the area north of the Temple Mount.

However, in 1099, the First Crusade succeeded in capturing Jerusalem, marking the beginning of the period of Christian domination in Palestine. There were seven waves of the Crusades that took place from 1096 to 1270. Although they had controlled the area, the Crusader forces were eventually expelled and Jerusalem was again controlled by Islam. In 1244, Arab forces took over Palestine and ruled it for about 250 years, with Arabs becoming the majority alongside a Jewish community that remained.

Entering the 16th century, precisely in 1500, the Ottoman Empire conquered Arab territories and took control of Palestine, making this region part of the Ottoman Empire for more than four centuries. For the first time in history, Arabs and Jews experienced together as parties colonized by a foreign power. This situation changed in 1917, when the British defeated the Ottomans and began to control Palestine.

British Political Promises: Jews and Arabs

In an effort to win local support during World War I, the British made political promises to both sides—Jews and Arabs—that would later cause great tension. In 1915, there was correspondence between Henry MacMahon (the British representative) and Hussein bin Ali, the ruler of Hejaz. Hussein hoped to acquire a large Arab territory including Palestine. However, MacMahon implicitly rejected this, stating that Palestine was not purely Arab and therefore not included in the promised territory.

On the other hand, Britain also approached the Jewish community. After Chaim Weizmann, a Jewish scientist, helped Britain in the war by inventing smokeless explosives, he asked for a homeland for the Jewish people in return. This request was the background to the birth of the Balfour Declaration (November 2, 1917), in which Britain expressed its support for the establishment of a "national homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine." In its implementation, the promised territory included all of Palestine, including the area now known as Jordan.

In 1922, Britain tried to calm Arab protests by offering a division of the territory: 23% for Jewish Palestine east of the Jordan River, and 77% for Arab Palestine west of the Jordan River (Transjordan). However, this division was rejected by the Arabs because they wanted all of Palestine to be under Arab control. Tensions escalated, and Palestinian Jews formed militias such as the Haganah and Irgun, while Palestinian Arabs resisted with forces such as the Fedayeen.

A massive wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine, especially after 1933 as a result of Nazi racism in Europe, further exacerbated the situation. The Arab Revolt in Palestine in 1936–1939 resulted in Arab defeat and the reduction of Jewish territorial allotments by the British and the UN.

UN Resolution and the Israeli Proclamation

The growing tensions prompted the UN to intervene. In 1947, the UN approved a plan to divide Palestine into two states: one for Jews and one for Arabs. However, the 23% planned for Israel was further reduced, further shrinking the territory of Israel. Although the Jewish community accepted this plan, the Arabs rejected it outright and rallied to prevent the establishment of the state of Israel.

The Modern State of Israel and Theological Perspectives

On May 14, 1948, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the founding of the State of Israel, one day before the end of the British Mandate. The declaration did not explicitly define the country's borders and did not mention God's name, indicating that the new state was founded more on historical and political rights than on covenant theology.

The establishment of the modern State of Israel is widely seen as the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham that his descendants would be a blessing to all nations (Genesis 22:18). However, Israel’s 1948 declaration of independence does not mention God by name, indicating that the establishment of the state was more political than theological. Nevertheless, the view that Israel is the “chosen people” lives on in many religious interpretations, especially in the Jewish tradition.

What comes to mind when you hear the word “Israel”? Do you think more of biblical figures, or of the modern state of the world?